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the number of the form 4 k + 2 have been removed from S . There are exactly 2 4 numbers for each type 4 k , 4 k + 1 and 4 k + 3 . If the number i is of either 4 k or 4 k + 3 types, then π ∑ j = 1 i j is an even number and, consequently its cosine is 1 . If the number i is of type 4 k + 1 , then π ∑ j = 1 i j is an odd number and, consequently its cosine is − 1 . There are 2 4 × 2 ones and 2 4 minus ones, so, they add up to 2 4 .